Canadian feminist organizations have striven for equity and equal opportunities for all women nationwide since the mid-1800s. Historically, the Canadian Feminist Movement is divided into three movements, but the Second Wave, spanning from 1960 to 1985, arguably made the most significant and enduring impact on women’s rights in Canada. During this period, campaigns such as the Canadian Voice of Women for Peace (VOW), which focused on “building and leading cultures of peace” and the Canadian Women’s Studies Association (WGSRF), which promoted and fostered Women’s and Gender Studies in universities, were founded, and legislative changes like the amendment to Bill C-127, which criminalized marital sexual assault, were implemented. These efforts not only addressed immediate inequalities but also laid the groundwork for lasting societal transformation. The Second Wave enabled women to engage more in professional fields like STEM, journalism, and sports; challenge stereotypes; and demonstrate their capabilities when given equal opportunities as men. However, questions remain as to the extent that Second Wave Feminism has helped all Canadian women achieve greater equality, both historically and in contemporary times. While critics like scholar Bell Hooks argue that the movement did not address fundamental legal inequalities or adequately represent non-white, non-middle-class women, others recognize the impacts and societal changes this movement brought about. This essay will argue that, despite the Canadian Second Wave of Feminism not achieving all of its goals, its overall benefits outweighed its limitations. Key failures such as insufficient representation and lack of gender pay equity will be examined, followed by a discussion on how the movement nevertheless expanded educational and professional opportunities for women and raised public awareness about gender stereotypes and challenges, resulting in broader societal inclusion.
While Second Wave Feminism’s main objective was to advocate for the rights of all Canadian women, the movement discriminately focused on the interests of middle-class white women and failed to sufficiently solve pay equity. One of the movement’s stated goals was to ensure stable employment for all women, but participants and organizations failed to adequately address or even acknowledge issues such as racial discrimination and economic disparities, which predominantly affect women of color and lower socioeconomic status. For example, regulations made during the movement benefitted middle-class women but left out women of color employed in less secure and lower-paying sectors such as garment manufacturing, agricultural labor, and various service industries. While some of their white middle-class counterparts received more access to stable jobs, those facing economic exploitation and instability in their compensation remained vulnerable. This discrepancy illustrates the movement’s focus on professional and educational advancements that primarily benefited women who already had access to certain socioeconomic privileges, rather than supporting women struggling to receive minimal daily pay. Additionally, in the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in Canada created in 1967, the government only advised educational institutions to employ guidance specialists to help girls overcome societal pressures and motivate them to achieve their interests, but it did not advise providing support to students living in poverty or educating them on the importance of completing one’s high school education. Although the intent of the regulation was positive, it excluded students who dropped out of school due to the need to support their families financially by joining the workforce. Students who lived in households that lacked economic resources still faced barriers and could not be supported by motivational conversations alone. Ignoring certain communities’ priorities has perpetuated more inequality among women, which directly contradicts the goal of Second Wave Feminism — to eliminate all inequalities. Secondly, it is also important to acknowledge that the movement failed to meet one of its other main goals — ensuring pay equity in workplaces. Although the Equal Pay Law was passed federally and provincially in 1963, the laws have proven to be ineffective and weak, with most employers failing to adhere strictly to them, causing pay inequality to persist. The root cause of this issue is that the government failed to introduce a robust monitoring system that could impose strict punishments if regulations were not followed. No resources were provided to women to help them understand the Pay Equity Law, which would have enabled them to fight for more equality and rights. In another instance, during the mid-1980s, approximately 20 years after the Equal Pay Act was passed, female employees still only earned 72% of what men earned in the same job positions. This further proved the inadequacy of the efforts and regulations the government had implemented to solve the issue of pay inequality. In summary, Second Wave Feminism predominantly served middle-class white women and fell short of fully addressing the complexities of pay equity and the broader needs of non-white women, reflecting significant gaps in its agenda and execution.
The Second Wave Feminism movement, however, did provide women with greater educational and job opportunities, which led to challenging and deconstructing persistent stereotypes in society. By providing equal educational and work opportunities for women, certain stereotypes can be dissembled, and women will benefit both historically and in contemporary times. Before the 1960s, according to the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), women only constituted about 32.9% of university enrollment. This absence of educational opportunities meant fewer women could secure stable, well-paying jobs and were less competitive in the job market than men. This disparity not only limited women’s earning potential but also perpetuated societal stereotypes that women are less successful than men and incapable of supporting a household financially. Additionally, the lack of equal work opportunities was supported by the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in Canada claiming that during the 1960s, 10% more female university students were unable to find summer jobs compared to male students. The lower employment rate for women is often due to employers and society believing that women aren’t as capable or smart as men, leading businesses to choose male candidates over females, even when they have the same university degree. This cycle of reduced opportunities for women can be broken only by increasing their access to higher education. As more women attend university and excel academically, they can challenge and change the stereotypes held by their classmates and professors. By participating in diverse work areas and excelling in their roles, they demonstrate to employers that they possess the same skills as men. This shift will prompt society to offer more opportunities to women, benefiting not only the current generation but also inspiring future generations of girls to pursue their interests without fearing instability in their careers. In addition, as feminist organizations continuously raised awareness regarding this issue, the government made university education more accessible for all women. Recognizing the lack of awareness about financial aid, the government introduced the Canadian Student Loans Plan in 1964. The plan allowed students to borrow a total of $5,000 for their entire educational period. This plan effectively enabled female students to pursue higher education and explore various fields, offering them the financial support necessary for tuition, even if their parents were not supportive of their decisions. Crucially, the loan is interest-free until six months after graduation. This helped relieve the immediate financial pressure on female university graduates upon completing their education, allowing them to focus on securing employment without the burden of accumulating interest. Further supporting educational access, the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in Canada recommended all educational institutions to employ guidance specialists that will help girls overcome societal pressures and aspire beyond perceived limitations. This initiative not only aids young women in resisting societal pressures but also encourages them to explore careers they are genuinely passionate about, thus contributing to gender equality in the workforce and broader society. Lastly, Second Wave Feminism brought significant changes to certain schooling materials and the methods of teaching. As all levels of government recognized how stereotypes were subtly embedded in most elementary and secondary textbooks, the Royal Commission on the Status of Women in Canada stated that it was mandatory for institutions to only adopt books that portray women and men in diversified roles and occupations. For example, books such as the Young Canada Reading Series where interesting characters like pirates were rarely women, and boys in the stories were typically active and adventurous, while girls were not would not be used. This recommendation effectively addressed the gender stereotypes prevalent in educational textbooks that could mislead young children, as traditional gender roles were often reinforced in these stories. Stereotypes in textbooks can limit the expectations of young female learners by suggesting certain careers are not appropriate for their gender. The mandate also promoted a more equitable educational environment where the presence of both women and men in various professional roles would be normalized. All of these changes would have a beneficial impact on future generations, as children would be exposed to gender diversity and equality at a younger age, leading to a decrease in gender-based stereotypes forming. To further ensure equity in all educational institutions, the Canadian Human Rights Act, introduced in 1977, ensured that all educational institutions treated girls and boys equally, prohibiting gender discrimination in any setting. This act would discourage teachers from lowering expectations for girls compared to boys in school and would encourage them to expect girls to complete all work to the best of their ability and participate in sports. The act also raised awareness among educators about gender biases and the consequences of these assumptions. By allowing girls to have the same opportunities as boys starting from a young age, female students can be more confident when they are allowed and encouraged to pursue their interests fully without gender restrictions. This can lead to higher academic achievement and greater involvement in areas traditionally dominated by boys, such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics which could further prevent stereotypes from forming. In short, Second Wave Feminism has significantly advocated for greater educational and job opportunities for all women, especially benefiting the next generations by providing a less biased schooling system.
Women also achieved higher representation in politics during the Second Wave Feminism, which allowed the raising of certain women-specific issues. In response to feminist organizations’ requests, the federal government agreed to encourage more female representation in its governing system, allowing women to participate in decision-making processes and challenge existing stereotypes. The government’s commitment to gender equality could be seen when the Ministry for the Status of Women was established in 1971 as a response to the recommendations of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women. The ministry was formed to address various issues related to gender equality and to promote the advancement of women across Canada. This department significantly increased women’s representation in politics as it has the mandate to influence existing policies and develop new regulations that promote the advancement and inclusion of all women, meaning that women now have more say in political decisions and regulation-making. The ministry also increased the visibility of women’s issues within the government, allowing all politicians to be aware of the importance of this issue and consider amending regulations that perpetuate gender-based stereotypes or inequalities. 48 years after the establishment of the Ministry for the Status of Women, gender equality was achieved in the federal cabinet, a department that sets the federal government’s policies and priorities. When there is greater representation of women in these key departments, it becomes easier to address women-specific issues and implement regulations. Representatives who want to promote further gender equality will receive more support, and unequal gender-based laws will not be established. Equal representation of women and men in the cabinet also helps dismantle stereotypes, such as the misconception that women lack the intelligence for political roles. These female representatives may be role models for future generations, inspiring young girls to pursue successful careers in politics and contribute to achieving gender equality in the governing system. In conclusion, the Ministry for the Status of Women allowed more representation of women’s perspectives in the government, removed certain stereotypes, and encouraged future generations to make changes and strive for equality.
Ultimately, although Canadian Second Wave Feminism didn’t achieve all its objectives, its overall advantages surpassed its limitations. The movement is significant, important, and relevant because it provided women with better economic conditions by offering improved educational and job opportunities, raised awareness regarding subtle unjust social expectations, broke gender roles, and laid the foundation for current gender equality initiatives. Without the efforts and changes brought about by Second Wave Feminism, today’s society would not be the same.